A search for successful and choked jets in nearby broad-lined Type Ic supernovae

TL;DR

This work presents a coordinated multi-wavelength campaign targeting nine nearby SNe Ic-BL to probe the presence and nature of relativistic jets, cocoons, and circumstellar interaction. By combining optical photometry/spectroscopy, Swift X-ray limits, and deep VLA radio monitoring, the authors constrain the occurrence rate of SN 1998bw-like radio emission to well below 20% of SNe Ic-BL and explore cocoon models as viable explanations for some radio-detected events. The results indicate a diverse Ic-BL population with both CSM-interacting and cocoon-dominated cases, while most events lack luminous, on-axis or modestly off-axis GRB-like X-ray/gamma-ray signatures. These findings, together with projections for LSST-era samples and IceCube neutrino searches, advance our understanding of jet formation and the multi-messenger signatures of massive-star explosions.

Abstract

The observational link between long gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) and broad-lined stripped-envelope core-collapse supernovae (SNe Ic-BL) is well established. Significant progress has been made in constraining what fraction of SNe Ic-BL may power high- or low-luminosity GRBs when viewed at small off-axis angles. However, the GRB-SN connection still lacks a complete understanding in the broader context of massive-star evolution and explosion physics. Models predict a continuum of outcomes for the fastest ejecta, from choked to ultra-relativistic jets, and observations from radio to X-rays are key to probing these scenarios across a range of viewing angles and velocities. Here, we present results from a coordinated radio-to-X-ray campaign targeting nearby (z<=0.1) SNe Ic-BL designed to explore this diversity. With eight new radio-monitored events and updated data for one previously observed SN, we further tighten constraints on the fraction of SNe Ic-BL as relativistic as SN 1998bw/GRB 980425. We identify SN 2024rjw as a new radio-loud event likely powered by strong interaction with circumstellar material (CSM), and add evidence supporting a similar interpretation for SN 2020jqm. We also establish new limits on the properties of radio-emitting ejecta with velocities consistent with cocoons from choked jets, highlighting SN 2022xxf as a promising cocoon-dominated candidate. These results refine our understanding of the continuum linking ordinary SNe Ic-BL, engine-driven explosions, and GRBs, and contribute to building a sample that will inform future multi-messenger searches for electromagnetic counterparts to high-energy neutrinos.

Figures (15)

• Figure 1: The P48 $r$-band (top) and $g$-band (middle) light curves for the SNe in our sample, compared with the R- and B-band light curves of SN 1998bw, respectively. The bottom panel shows the corresponding color evolution, with the archetypal SN 1998bw represented by black solid points.
• Figure 2: This plot displays the spectra (in gray) along with their best-match templates (in black) from Astrodash for the SNe Ic-BL in our sample. The spectra are labeled with their IAU designation, the IAU name of the best-matched supernova, as well as their phases. Note that for SN 2022xzc, we do not show the phase since the explosion time is hard to estimate due to its peculiar light curve. The spectra have been selected as the highest resolution ones obtained during the photospheric phase.
• Figure 3: Photospheric velocities of the 7 Ic-BL and 1 Ic (2024rjw) ZTF SNe with in our sample (black) plotted as a function of time since explosion (see Table \ref{['tab:opt_data']}). Velocities are measures using Fe II 5169 Å . We also plot the photospheric velocities of: GRB-SNe 1998Natur.395..672I2003ApJ...599L..95M2006ApJ...645.1323M; XRF/X-ray transients SNe 2006Natur.442.1018M2006Natur.442.1011P2009ApJ...702..226M; SNe Ic-BL 2000ApJ...545..407M2002ApJ...572L..61M; Type Ic SNe 2006MNRAS.369.1939S. The velocities for the SNe Ic-BL in Corsi-2016 and 2019AA...621A..71T are shown as yellow crosses, those from 2023ApJ...953..179C and 2024ApJ...976...71S as orange dots.
• Figure 4: The $g$-, $r$-, and $i$-band light curves of SN 2022xxf, with data points shown as circles (green, red, and orange, respectively) and upper limits marked as downward triangles. The light curve clearly displays a double-peaked structure. The vertical dashed line indicates the estimated explosion epoch. See 2023AA...678A.209K for further a discussion of the interpretation of this double-peaked light curve in the context of ejecta-CSM interaction as a plausible explanation for the second light curve hump.
• Figure 5: The $g$-, $r$-, and $i$-band light curve for SN 2022xzc, pointing to a double-peaked structure.