The Evaluation for Usability Methods of Unmanned Surface Vehicles: Are Current Usability Methods Viable for Unmanned Surface Vehicles? Insights from a Multiple Case Study Approach to Human-Robot Interaction

TL;DR

The paper investigates usability challenges in Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) through a multi-case HRI study combining interviews with engineers and end-users and immersive field observations. It reveals that existing USV interfaces and control paradigms impose steep learning curves on beginners, amplified by underactuated dynamics, map inaccuracies, and limited situational awareness in dynamic inland and nearshore environments. By analyzing three representative use cases—harmful algal bloom detection, underwater pipe inspection, and post-construction hydrographic surveying—the study identifies key design tensions between automation and human input and proposes design principles to improve learning, control familiarity, and multimodal situational awareness, including AR-assisted training, embodied control, and intelligent automation. The findings challenge the transfer of UAV/AV usability lessons to USVs and offer a roadmap for context-aware maritime HRI that can enhance safety, efficiency, and operator proficiency. Overall, the work contributes actionable guidance for the next generation of USV interfaces and emphasizes the need for domain-specific usability methodologies in maritime robotics, with potential benefits for environmental monitoring, infrastructure inspection, and maritime operations.

Abstract

Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) are increasingly utilised for diverse applications, ranging from environmental monitoring to security patrols. While USV technology is progressing, it remains clear that full autonomy is not achievable in all scenarios, and remote human intervention is still crucial, particularly in dynamic or complex environments. This continued reliance on human intervention highlights a range of Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) challenges that remain unresolved. Compared to the extensive body of HRI research in domains such as unmanned aerial vehicles and autonomous vehicles, HRI considerations specific to USVs remain significantly underexplored. Addressing this gap, our study investigates real-world usability challenges in USV operation through in-depth interviews with 9 engineers and users, supported by field observations. We focus especially on the difficulties beginner operators encounter and their coping strategies. Our findings reveal existing usability issues, mental models, and adaptation strategies of beginners that inform future user-centered design of USV systems, contributing new insights to the emerging field of maritime HRI. Based on these findings, we argue that current USV systems are poorly suited for beginner operation in dynamic inland and offshore environments, where operators must make timely decisions under uncertainty, manage complex spatial awareness, and adapt to changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, we identify key operational patterns in three representative use cases-harmful algal bloom detection, underwater concealed pipe inspection and post-construction hydrographic survey, and summarise key interaction constraints that should inform future maritime HRI design efforts.

Figures (9)

• Figure 1: Thematic map illustrating key findings from the analysis.
• Figure 2: The turning radius of USVs.
• Figure 3: The Three Manual Interface Types Include: (1) The Interface Provided by a Certain Company; (2) Aircraft-Style Throttle Control; and (3) Dual-Joystick Gamepad.
• Figure 4: Dual Joystick Configuration: The Left Joystick Controls Left–Right Direction, and the Right Joystick Controls Forward–Backward Throttle.
• Figure 5: Aircraft-Style Throttle Control: Operators Control Speed by Pushing the Stick Forward or Backward, and Control Direction by Rotating the Stick Left or Right.