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Nearly forgotten results in development of physical cosmology

Alexander F. Zakharov

TL;DR

The article highlights nearly forgotten but foundational milestones in physical cosmology, tracing the shift from Einstein's static Universe to dynamic models via Friedmann and Lemaître, including the Hubble–Lemaître relation and Big Bang concepts. It documents early CMB predictions by Lemaître, the 1956–57 Shmaonov discovery at Pulkovo, and subsequent anisotropy detections by Relikt-1 and COBE, illustrating both scientific progression and the political context in which Soviet and Western research evolved. The discussion links inflationary ideas proposed by Gliner to the later realization of dark energy as a cosmological constant, underscoring how historical memory shapes current cosmology. Overall, the piece argues for recognizing these often overlooked contributions and integrating them into the standard narrative of cosmology's development across different scientific communities.

Abstract

It would be reasonable to recall some critical issues in physical cosmology development. GR was created by A. Einstein in 1915. In 1917 Einstein proposed the first (static) cosmological model. Soon after the A. Eddington proved that the model is unstable therefore it can not be realizable in nature. In 1922 and 1924 A. A. Friedmann found non-stationary solutions for cosmological equations written in the framework of GR. In 1927 G. Lemaitre obtained very similar results and, in addition, he derived the Hubble law (E. Hubble obtained this law from observations). Unfortunately, G. Lemaitre published his paper in not very popular Belgium journal. In 1931 Lemaitre proposed the first version of hot Universe model (he called it hypothesis of the primeval atom). In his book Lemaitre predicted even a background radiation as a signature of his model. One of the important property of the Lemaitre -- Gamow model was a prediction of CMB radiation with a temperature around a few K. It was recalled that the discovery of CMB radiation was done by T. Shmaonov in 1956 and his paper was published in 1957 (several years before Penzias and Wilson). In 1965, 1970 E. B. Gliner proposed vacuum like equation of matter which could correspond to exponential explosion of the Universe which was later called inflation. For decades in USSR, Friedmann's cosmological non-stationary models were treated as purely mathematical results without cosmologocal applications. On September 16, 1925 passed away untimely and it would be reasonable to remind today his great contribution in physical cosmology since the authors of book on Friedmann wrote that "similarly to Copernicus who forced the Earth to move Friedmann forced the Universe to expand".

Nearly forgotten results in development of physical cosmology

TL;DR

The article highlights nearly forgotten but foundational milestones in physical cosmology, tracing the shift from Einstein's static Universe to dynamic models via Friedmann and Lemaître, including the Hubble–Lemaître relation and Big Bang concepts. It documents early CMB predictions by Lemaître, the 1956–57 Shmaonov discovery at Pulkovo, and subsequent anisotropy detections by Relikt-1 and COBE, illustrating both scientific progression and the political context in which Soviet and Western research evolved. The discussion links inflationary ideas proposed by Gliner to the later realization of dark energy as a cosmological constant, underscoring how historical memory shapes current cosmology. Overall, the piece argues for recognizing these often overlooked contributions and integrating them into the standard narrative of cosmology's development across different scientific communities.

Abstract

It would be reasonable to recall some critical issues in physical cosmology development. GR was created by A. Einstein in 1915. In 1917 Einstein proposed the first (static) cosmological model. Soon after the A. Eddington proved that the model is unstable therefore it can not be realizable in nature. In 1922 and 1924 A. A. Friedmann found non-stationary solutions for cosmological equations written in the framework of GR. In 1927 G. Lemaitre obtained very similar results and, in addition, he derived the Hubble law (E. Hubble obtained this law from observations). Unfortunately, G. Lemaitre published his paper in not very popular Belgium journal. In 1931 Lemaitre proposed the first version of hot Universe model (he called it hypothesis of the primeval atom). In his book Lemaitre predicted even a background radiation as a signature of his model. One of the important property of the Lemaitre -- Gamow model was a prediction of CMB radiation with a temperature around a few K. It was recalled that the discovery of CMB radiation was done by T. Shmaonov in 1956 and his paper was published in 1957 (several years before Penzias and Wilson). In 1965, 1970 E. B. Gliner proposed vacuum like equation of matter which could correspond to exponential explosion of the Universe which was later called inflation. For decades in USSR, Friedmann's cosmological non-stationary models were treated as purely mathematical results without cosmologocal applications. On September 16, 1925 passed away untimely and it would be reasonable to remind today his great contribution in physical cosmology since the authors of book on Friedmann wrote that "similarly to Copernicus who forced the Earth to move Friedmann forced the Universe to expand".

Paper Structure

This paper contains 8 sections, 3 figures.

Table of Contents

  1. Introduction
  2. Start of GR studies in Russia
  3. A. A. Friedmann and dawn of physical cosmology
  4. G. Lemaître , the Hubble law and the Big Bang concept
  5. T. A. Shmaonov and the CMB discovery in Pulkovo
  6. Relikt-1 and COBE discoveries
  7. E. B. Gliner's ideas on cosmic vacuum, inflation and accelerated expansion of the Universe
  8. Conclusion

Figures (3)

  • Figure 1: Cover page of the first Russian book on GR.
  • Figure 2: The Friedmann's tomb at the Smolensky Cemetery in St. Petersburg. The photo was taken in October 2025.
  • Figure 3: Tigran Aramovich Shmaonov presented his talk on CMB discovery in Pulkovo Observatory in 1956 -- 1957. The talk was given on 17 April 2017 at the S.I. Vavilov Institute for the History of Science (Moscow).