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From Concept to Measurement: A Survey of How the Blockchain Trilemma Is Analyzed

Mansur Masama Aliyu, Niclas Kannengießer, Ali Sunyaev

TL;DR

This paper tackles the fragmentation in how the blockchain trilemma (DoD, scalability, security) is defined and measured across studies. It employs a systematic literature search and abductive thematic analysis to identify 12 constructs and 15 metrics that operationalize the subconcepts, and maps these to concrete benchmarking and analysis approaches. The authors provide a harmonized framework with explicit input variables to guide data collection, allow cross-study comparability, and support Pareto-aware blockchain design. They also discuss limitations and open challenges, notably the sociotechnical dimensions of decentralization and governance, and propose directions for extending the framework to Layer-2, non-blockchain systems, and broader distributed databases.

Abstract

The blockchain trilemma highlights the difficulty of simultaneously achieving a high degree of decentralization (DoD), scalability, and security in blockchain systems. While numerous constructs and metrics have been proposed to analyze these subconcepts, existing guidance is fragmented and inconsistent, limiting comparability across studies. This lack of clarity hinders practitioners in identifying Pareto-optimal blockchain system designs that meet common non-functional requirements. We systematically reviewed literature on the blockchain trilemma and blockchain benchmarks to synthesize constructs and their operationalizations through metrics to analyze the trilemma's subconcepts. We identified 12 constructs, operationalized through 15 metrics, that capture DoD, scalability, and security. We explain how these constructs apply across different blockchain systems and provide a structured overview that supports benchmarking and blockchain system design. Beyond blockchain, the findings offer insights for distributed database systems that rely on consensus and state machine replication. This work contributes a harmonized foundation for quantitative analyses of the blockchain trilemma, guiding both researchers in developing analysis approaches and practitioners in evaluating real-world systems.

From Concept to Measurement: A Survey of How the Blockchain Trilemma Is Analyzed

TL;DR

This paper tackles the fragmentation in how the blockchain trilemma (DoD, scalability, security) is defined and measured across studies. It employs a systematic literature search and abductive thematic analysis to identify 12 constructs and 15 metrics that operationalize the subconcepts, and maps these to concrete benchmarking and analysis approaches. The authors provide a harmonized framework with explicit input variables to guide data collection, allow cross-study comparability, and support Pareto-aware blockchain design. They also discuss limitations and open challenges, notably the sociotechnical dimensions of decentralization and governance, and propose directions for extending the framework to Layer-2, non-blockchain systems, and broader distributed databases.

Abstract

The blockchain trilemma highlights the difficulty of simultaneously achieving a high degree of decentralization (DoD), scalability, and security in blockchain systems. While numerous constructs and metrics have been proposed to analyze these subconcepts, existing guidance is fragmented and inconsistent, limiting comparability across studies. This lack of clarity hinders practitioners in identifying Pareto-optimal blockchain system designs that meet common non-functional requirements. We systematically reviewed literature on the blockchain trilemma and blockchain benchmarks to synthesize constructs and their operationalizations through metrics to analyze the trilemma's subconcepts. We identified 12 constructs, operationalized through 15 metrics, that capture DoD, scalability, and security. We explain how these constructs apply across different blockchain systems and provide a structured overview that supports benchmarking and blockchain system design. Beyond blockchain, the findings offer insights for distributed database systems that rely on consensus and state machine replication. This work contributes a harmonized foundation for quantitative analyses of the blockchain trilemma, guiding both researchers in developing analysis approaches and practitioners in evaluating real-world systems.
Paper Structure (36 sections, 23 equations, 2 figures, 5 tables)

This paper contains 36 sections, 23 equations, 2 figures, 5 tables.

Table of Contents

  1. Introduction
  2. Theoretical Foundations and Related Research
  3. Blockchain Technology and System Model
  4. Permission models
  5. Finality models
  6. Fault tolerance
  7. Performance
  8. Blockchain Trilemma's Subconcepts and Their Interrelationships
  9. Blockchain Trilemma Subconcepts
  10. Degree of Decentralization
  11. Scalability
  12. Security
  13. Interrelationships Between the Blockchain Trilemma's Subconcepts
  14. DoD vs. Scalability
  15. DoD vs. Security
  16. ...and 21 more sections

Figures (2)

  • Figure 1: Layered blockchain system model (adapted from Leinweber et al. leinweber2023leveraging). The dashed border delineates the replicated database system composed of validating nodes; transaction originators (clients/applications, end-user wallet, or service) submit transactions from outside this boundary. Validating nodes implement one or more functional layers: Entry & Propagation (interfaces and dissemination), Consensus & Ordering (canonical ordering/finality), and State Execution & Replication (deterministic validation/execution and ledger updates). Not all validating nodes implement every layer; for example, Hyperledger Fabric orderers participate only in Consensus & Ordering and do not execute transactions or store the application ledger, whereas Fabric peers and validators in permissionless systems implement the replicated state machine.
  • Figure 2: Interrelationships between the blockchain trilemma, subconcepts, constructs, and metrics.