Defining Quantum Games

TL;DR

This paper addresses the lack of a formal, inclusive definition for quantum games amid a rapidly growing landscape of quantum-physics–related titles. It conducts a comprehensive survey of 250+ games and introduces a three-dimensional framework—perceivable quantum physics, quantum technologies, and scientific purposes—to define and analyze quantum games. A formal definition is proposed: quantum games are those that reference quantum physics, technologies, or computing through perceivable means, technology use, or scientific aims. The authors detail their data-collection and coding methodology and discuss how this framework can guide future design, education, and research in the expanding ecosystem of quantum games. The work has practical impact for designers, educators, and researchers aiming to advance quantum literacy and responsibly explore education, citizen science, and entertainment within quantum-enabled play.

Abstract

In this research article, we survey existing quantum physics-related games and, based on this survey, propose a definition for the concept of quantum games. We define a quantum game as any type of rule-based game that either employs the principles of quantum physics or references quantum phenomena or the theory of quantum physics through any of three proposed dimensions: the perceivable dimension of quantum physics, the dimension of quantum technologies, and the dimension of scientific purposes, such as citizen science or education. We also discuss the concept of quantum computer games, which are games on quantum computers, as well as definitions for the concept of science games. Various games explore quantum physics and quantum computing through digital, analogue, and hybrid means, with various incentives driving their development. As interest in games as educational tools for supporting quantum literacy grows, understanding the diverse landscape of quantum games becomes increasingly important. We propose that the three dimensions of quantum games identified in this article be used for designing, analysing, and defining the phenomenon of quantum games.

Figures (6)

• Figure 1: (a) Life magazine photo of comedian Danny Kaye standing in front of Bertie the Brain at the Canadian National Exhibition in 1950 (Bernard Hoffman 1950). (b) The game OXO on EDSAC programmed by Alexander Shafto Douglas in 1952 (from the Gaming-History website ). (c) Spacewar! running on PDP-1 (Joi Ito 2007). Both Bertie the Brain and EDSAC demonstrated a game Tic-tac-toe against artificial intelligence and were developed primarily to demonstrate the latest advancements in computer technology. Spacewar! was a game developed specifically for PDP-1 and aimed to reach a new level of computer entertainment.
• Figure 2: Screenshots from game Quantum Break (Remedy Entertainment, Press kit (2016)). Quantum Break is a science fiction action-adventure third-person shooter where the protagonist is able to control the flow of time.
• Figure 3: (a) An annotated interface of the Game mode of Quantum Moves 2 (2019) (Shaeema Zaman Ahmed ahmed2021PHD), and (b) screenshots from meQuanics (2016). On Quantum Moves 2, the player controls the position of a wave-like potential confining a liquid-like quantum object and aims to move this liquid to a designated position. In meQuanics, the player solves puzzles consisting of complex knot-like structures. Quantum Moves 2 and meQuanics are citizen science games for quantum physical sciences.
• Figure 4: Screenshots from the educational games (a) Quantum TiqTaqToe (2019) and (b) Quantum Game by Quantum Flytrap (2020). In Quantum TiqTaqToe the basic rules of the classic Tic-Tac-Toe are enhanced with actions displaying quantum mechanical phenomena. In Quantum Game the player solves puzzles introducing the basic actions and logic of quantum optics equipment.
• Figure 5: Screenshots from games (a) Quantum Entanglement (2019), and (b) Quantum Labyrinth (2020). Quantum Entanglement is a two-player puzzle-adventure, where the player controls two characters, and can only move one of them at a time. In Quantum Labyrinth the player characters are controlled simultaneously in order to solve puzzles.